City of Clans – Exploring the Cultures of Chinese and Western Ethnic Groups of Hong Kong through the Study of Several Blocks of Historical Dwelling Architecture

Writer: Edward Leung

“Creation draws on the roots of Cultural Tradition but flourishes in contact with other cultures. For this reason, heritage in all its forms must be preserved, enhanced and handed onto future generations as a record of human experience and aspirations, so as to foster creativity in all its diversity and to inspire genuine dialogue among cultures.” ⁽¹⁾ –– United Nations, Universal Declaration of Cultural Diversity, 2001.

Foreword: Dialogue between vernacular architectural heritage and artistic creation

Hong Kong is a fortunate place, as said by many local residents and foreign visitors. The relentless efforts by Western and Chinese communities through the past century, in adaptation and co-existence, amidst stormy waves, on this borrowed place, are adequate to demonstrate this. Whether it is about the early villagers who moved in from various counties during the Ming and Qing dynasties, or the European traders who came during the early colonial era, would have brought in their own customs, dialects, beliefs and cultures, and expressed in architectural styles inherited from their homelands. After cramping into this unfamiliar town, these many passers gradually settled down, developed through competitions and corporations, while subtly illustrating their evolved cultures in the architectural designs of their traditional dwellings, which became the characters of Hong Kong.

This year, the Art Promotion Office selected a number of historical buildings set up by families of minority Western and Chinese communities as art exhibition venues of unique flavour. The selected buildings are the mansion built in 1914 by Mr Ho Kom-tong of the cross-breed Ho Tung family, and three dwellings of the early Hakka peoples, including Sam Tung Uk in Tsuen Wan, Wong Uk in Sha Tin, and Law Uk in Chai Wan. Exerting their creativities, several local artists display their unique works in these historical spaces.

The Universal Declaration of Cultural Diversity cites that, the deep-seated peoples’ culture is the foundation of all creations. Heritage architecture is not just an ornamental object, but also a carrier of culture. Its embedded historical messages are not comprehensible from mere sightseeing by a guided tour or by photo-taking by a passing glance. In particular for a piece of dwelling architecture, what confessed is no longer the aesthetics pronounced by the designer, but the living attitude or the family value of the owner or the community, which is indeed a cultural treasure. This article aims to provide some basic knowledge on the historic development of Western and Chinese communities of Hong Kong, and their heritage architectural characteristics, so as to facilitate an in-depth involvement for the artists and visitors in this dialogue between historic architecture and artistic creation, thereby providing a bit of back-up support to this socially meaningful event.

Hakka archi-history: illustration of cultures and history of Hakka peoples in Hong Kong through three examples of traditional Hakka dwellings in Hong Kong

“There is no satisfactory full length account available in Chinese, English... which takes in all the complexities of the population and settlements of the Hong Kong region.” ⁽²⁾ –– Dr James Hayes, Senior Hong Kong Historian, 2012.

The majority of the population of Hong Kong residents are Chinese, some being decedents of local villagers or fishermen from centuries ago, some being immigrants who moved in during turbulences in China in the past hundred years, some being returning overseas Chinese, and some being new immigrants from China in recent years. However we find it difficult to understand why we have these various forms of customs and accents; neither do textbooks seem to have introduced these traditional Chinese communities who lived here longer than most of modern Hong Kong people and contributed much to the buildings of Hong Kong. To unravel the mystery of the traditional Chinese vernacular architectures, one may begin with the academic analysis of Chinese ethnologic communities.

The Chinese script and language are the main carriers of the global Chinese culture, and are also important elements of world intangible cultural heritage. Influenced by varied landscapes, climates, and history, the Chinese evolved into many communities known as sub-ethnic groups differentiated by characterised products, cuisines, costumes, beliefs, customs, and crafts. Furthermore, “each group would have its representative architectural typology” ⁽³⁾, hence learning the categorisation of subethnic groups is the basis for understanding Chinese traditional vernacular architectures. The most obvious character of a sub-ethnic group would be its dialect, which has become the main mode of categorisation. Seven main Han dialects survive today ⁽⁴⁾, namely, Mandarin, Wu, Xiang, Gan, Min, Ke (Hakka) and Yue, implying seven main sub-ethnic groups. Throughout the past thousands years, many clans moved from northern China at different periods to the South-east coastal regions of Mainland China generally known as the Lingnan region, and by around the 15^th century, meaning the Ming and Qing dynasties, the climate and landscape nurtured and consolidated the three main communities, namley Yue (generally known as Guangfu peoples or Cantonese peoples), Ke (the Hakka peoples) and Min (including the Fujian, Chiu Chow and Hoklo peoples), which also make up the three main traditional Chinese groups of Hong Kong. The predominant Cantonese peoples (including Punti peoples of the traditional local large clans in the New Territories) and the lesser number Chiu Chow and Hoklo peoples have their characterised architectures; nevertheless, this article shall focus on the Hakka peoples of Hong Kong and their architectures.

The study of Hakka culture was pioneered by Professor Lou Xianling in 1920s, who traces it to the process of five times of mass migration of northern clans towards the south during several historical turbulences in China ⁽⁵⁾. After consolidation by subsequent academics, the definition of Hakka would be those communities who moved into Lingnan from the north during the end of Song Dynasty in the 12^th century. The Hakka peoples generally acknowledge that their own families originated in the ancient northern central plain districts of Shandong or Henan provinces, while noting their lineage being from the mountain regions at south-west of Fujian province and north-east of Guangdong province, around the Meixian and Wuhua areas, where their ancestors migrated 900 years ago and settled. By now, “Hakka has become a cultural concept: no longer an ethnical concept” ⁽⁶⁾. The Hakka population amounts to 37 million around the world, scattered around Lingnan and overseas.

By the brutal imperial order of the early Qing Dynasty, peasants of the coastal areas of China including that of Hong Kong were forcibly migrated, causing extensive perishment. The communities only gradually returned to peace by the 18^th century when the order was withdrawn. The Qing government encouraged Hakka peoples from the mountain areas to move to the coastal fertile plains to cultivate, so as to assist the local economic recovery, but such policies caused conflicts with local Guangfu communities, whereby leading the Hakka peoples to develop architectures such as Tulou or Walled-houses, and similar “unique and mighty vernacular architectures, ... (the reason being they) had to face the hostility of the Han peoples who settled earlier, ... so when Hakka peoples (arrived) these marginal and hilly area, they created unique settlements that not only could defend against community combats, but also could suit their cohesive lineage systems” ⁽⁷⁾. The few introvert and defensive historic Hakka buildings introduced in this article are precisely the testimony of the lineage and livelihood of Hakka people of Hong Kong. By the 18^th century, “the villages of Punti people had already occupied the fertile plains in the New Territories such as Sheung Shui, Yuen Long and Tuen Mun, ... (The Hakka peoples then) came in tens of thousands to set up more than 400 villages, ... generally distributed in remote areas, ... mostly in reclaimed valleys in east New Territories, ... (They) led a simple and modest farming live, and in hardship compared with Punti people... (Then) main characteristics of Hakka people, apart from the Hakka dialect, included architectures, costumes, cuisines, and festivals, with obvious differentiation from that of Punti people” ⁽⁸⁾. Although the urban Hong Kong peoples of Hakka origins probably seldom display ancient customs nowadays, the fortunate conservation of a few intact historic Hakka dwellings allows us to explore the rich Hakka cultural heritage.

Sam Tung Uk is one of the most well-known and publicly accessible Hakka mansion. Genealogy of the Hakka Chan Clan traces their origins to the Chan noble family of the Yingchuan Prefecture of Henan Province of the late Han Dynasty (3^rd century), who subsequently in early Qing Dynasty moved from mountainous region of western Fujian province to the Jin Wan area (now Tsuen Wan) at the southward foot of Tai Mo Shan of Hong Kong to start cultivating. Although short of vast plains, the coastal area of Tsuen Wan at that era, benefiting from fresh water source and harbour landscape, allowed the Hakka peoples to settle and prosper. This enabled the Chan clan to become a large clan, and to erect an extensive walled-house centred on an Ancestral Hall in the 51^st year of Qianlong era (1786). Its three consecutive halls along the axis, with three numbers of Tung, meaning main ridge purlins in Hakka tradition, led to its being called Sam Tung Uk (literally Three Ridge-purlin House). As the government resumed farmlands of Tsuen Wan in 1980s to build MTR, the Chan clan relocated to Cheung Pei Shan to rebuild their village houses and Ancestral Hall; “Sam Tung Uk was saved from destruction, restored in 1987, and now opened to the public as a folk museum” ⁽⁹⁾.

The whole Sam Tung Uk faces south-west and backs onto north-east, both in keeping with feng shui disposition and enjoying climatic modulation. Its layout design possesses ideas of the typical Hakka walled-house, where a row of three ritual halls is laid along the central axis. From its front hall known as the Doorway Hall, passing through the front courtyard, entering the middle hall known as the Main Hall (or Assembly Hall) for greetings and rituals, then further passing through inner courtyard, one would reach the final hall known as Rear Hall for placing ancestral tablets. Extending sideways from these three halls would be the four dwellings of the prime lineage families known as Ear-blocks, each with its own courtyard and cockloft. Further sideways are dwellings for branch families known as transverse blocks, each with doors facing the transverse direction towards the central axis. It is obvious that the mansion not only obeys the principles of axiality, introversy, and hierarchy of Chinese traditional architecture ⁽¹⁰⁾, but also illustrates the spirit of cohesion and the system of respecting seniority in Hakka large clans.

The main plaque of the Main Hall depicts ‘Imperial Commendation for the Virtuous Elders’, hinting the Hakka belief. Directly below the main ridge purlin, there is a smaller diameter Junior Purlin with ‘Longevity & Prosperity’ inscribed, whereas adjacent to it is an octagonal section Lantern Purlin with ‘Numerous Decedents’ inscribed, both being elements unique to Hakka architectures. The shrine-frame in the Rear Hall where ancestral tablets are placed is full of colourful paintings; topped by a set of elaborate multi-chromed carving themed as ‘Pair of Phoenix Paying Tribute to the Sun’, supported by coloured paintings of the auspicious images of bat and the Chinese unicorn, qilin. These are all must-see artefacts for visitors of Sam Tung Uk.

The next building to illustrate is the Wong Uk in Yuen Chau Kok of Sha Tin. Yuen Chau Kok was originally a small island on the mouth of Sha Tin Sea. This island, sheltered from storm by being in a harbour, as well as being closed to villages and townships of Sha Tin, had piers and vehicular paths built in the 19^th century, thus became a major trade hub between Guangdong and Kwun Fu Cheung administrative town in Kowloon. About 200 years ago, the Wong Hakka couple from Xinning County came with their seven children to the south coast of Yuen Chau Kok to cultivate rice and vegetables. The coast later grew into the Wong Uk Village, displaying the prosperity arising from the agricultural cum trading pattern. The existing historic building of Wong Uk was built by the Wong clan before 1910s, as a Hakka dwelling of typical one-courtyard two-hall configuration. As the government relocated the villagers in 1980s to develop Sha Tin, this building was conserved and converted into a museum, and became a part of the Yuen Chau Park, reciting the history of the Hakka village and township living in Sha Tin.

The Wong, being traders, obviously introduced facilities such as kitchen and bathroom in their dwelling, and also incorporated pseudo-western arched colonnades and hard-wood sliding gates common for shops of Guangzhou, but nevertheless obeying traditional feng shui rules such as ‘exposing-white’, meaning the sectional design that enables one at ritual desk at Rear Hall to see a gap of sky above the ridgeline of Front Hall. For culturists and artists, the most worthy of viewing would be the coloured paintings decorations. At the centre, above the exterior front doorway, would be the coloured lime plaster themed on ‘Pair of Phoenix Paying Tribute to the Sun’ as being the favourite of Hakka peoples. To its sides are auspicious images of ‘Magpie Mounting Plum Blossom (meaning Happiness displayed on Eyebrows)’ and ‘Three Lions (meaning Three Imperial Councilors)’. The interior wall paintings use pale Chinese brush-style to illustrate ancient stories, such as ‘Scholars Discussing the World Status’, ‘Watching the Waterfall’ and ‘Master Jiang Fishing Pine’, which hinted as the mindset of the clan in quietly observing the world even with wealth of talents. Visitors who are more interested in architectural craftsmanship may look above to view the nicely crafted Geometric-dragon on the ridge and Curled-weed lime plaster on the gable wall from the outside.

The final Hakka house to introduce is the small Law Uk in Chai Wan. Despite the claim by the British that Hong Kong was a barren rock prior to their occupation in 1841, about three hundred Hakka peoples actually came from the Bao'an County of Guangdong to the eastern coast of Hong Kong island in the Kiangsi era of early Qing Dynasty at the 18^th century to set up several villages. With backing onto the forest hills and facing onto the harbour, the predominately agricultural villagers also engaged in foresting and coastal fishing with hardship, thus the village houses were simple brick and timber buildings. The Chai Wan villages gradually vanished as the city developed, and the Law clan moved out in 1967. This only remaining village house amongst the many villages was restored and opened as Law Uk Folk Museum, where village furniture and farming tools are displayed, testifying the historical development of Chai Wan. Law Uk belongs to the smallest type of a Chinese courtyard house, in a one-courtyard one-hall configuration. The side wings are arranged with two gable walls facing the front to form the ‘Crouching Tiger’ configuration, implying the embracement by two mountain ranges, which is a feng shui arrangement integrating ancient Chiu Chow and Hakka styles. With only one Main Hall in the middle and one courtyard in front of it, the tiled roofs of two-side colonnades fall towards the courtyard, allowing rainwater to drain into a water outlet in the sunken floor, thus creating a ‘4-Sided Dipping Arrangement’, implying the collection of wealth and auspiciousness. Law Uk, apparent from these designs, despite its small size and lack of decorations, reveals the aspirations of the Hakka vernacular livelihood. On the other hand, as one moves from the Main Hall of greeting-use to the side bedrooms, one can observe the construction method of the timber joist cockloft and the tiled roof with skylight, demonstrating the unpretentious Hakka peasant livelihood. From these, we may appreciate the traditional parallel attitude of aspiration and pragmatism of the Hakka peoples.

In conclusion, as long as the original customs of traditional Hakka community are understood, it is not difficult to meticulously explore more meaningful elements from these three well conserved historic dwellings. Thus visitors may experience in-depth stories of various Chinese communities settling and evolving in Hong Kong through the heritage architecture, and treasure the Hong Kong spirit of cohesion and endeavour as attained not with ease.

Chinese and Western exemplar: Revealing the early Hong Kong integration of Chinese-Western culture via a historic mansion of famous local westernised Chinese

“From beginning of the colony, (Hong Kong) has been attracting waves of various ethnic groups from afar. By 1931 during the last census before the war, non-Chinese population accounts for 3.3%, ... from 48 different countries.” ⁽¹¹⁾ –– Joseph Ting, Senior Hong Kong Historian, 2014.

For the past one and a half century, Hong Kong had been a society of Chinese-Western cohabitation. The role of transmitting orders from the colonial government to the local communities were bore by Western clergymen familiar with Chinese culture, mixed-blood business tycoons, and Chinese leaders who held significant posts in Western organisations. The latter group includes Hong Kong Land Director Li Sing, the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation comprador Lo Pak-sheung, and one of the earliest Chinese Legislative Council members Ho Kai. “The colonial government of Hong Kong had been exercising indirect governing of the Chinese society through elites in the Chinese community, ... hence the Hong Kong government had to introduce... those with Chinese faces, yet of Western concepts, ... as best partners, ... thus the coexistence of Chinese-Western governance was formed” ⁽¹²⁾. Amongst which, one important Chinese figure in Western organisation was a comprador of Jardine, Ho Kom-tong, who was the original owner of the fourth venue of this exhibition, Kom Tong Hall.

Ho Kom-tong (1866-1950) received English education since youth, and joined the strongest English firm, Jardine, as a comprador, meaning the middleman between the English businessmen and the Chinese traders. He earned high profits from the business, thus set up his own sugar and cotton enterprise. Although Ho’s parents are both Chinese, he had a complex personal life intertwined with Chinese-Western family members. He was the half brother of the famous Eurasian Mr Robert Ho Tung (1862-1956). His own “last mistress was a Eurasian woman Cheung King-sin (1866-1960), ... (whose) adopted daughter, Grace Ho, ... her son was (international Kung Fu star) Bruce Lee” ⁽¹³⁾. Cheung was believed to be half Russian; her cousin was Ms Cheung Lin-kok, the famous second wife of Ho Tung well known for her providing Buddhist schoolings to orphan girls by setting up Tung Lin Kok Yuen.

The mansion of Kom Tong Hall was built in 1914, designed by the English architect best at using red brick walls and white arches, Little, Adams and Wood, in collaboration with another architectural practice famous for grand classical designs, Aston Webb & Ingres Bells. The most prominent feature of this mansion is the grand front elevation, where the tall classical double-storey ionic columns set-off the delicate red brick walls, and the solemn lower floor arches in artificial stone render contrast with the elaborate gilded railings, illustrating the most outstanding product of Edwardian style. “The composition of the elevations represents a sensitive adaptation of the Edwardian design to local climatic conditions with deep recessed verandahs in front and projected open balconies for two major rooms. All window and door openings were fitted with timber louvres shutters for the protection of solar penetration as well as to provide the necessary ventilation even when they are closed, whenever possible all the major rooms were designed to have windows on two sides and high headroom for optimum natural ventilation. The verandah and the balconies also allow space for outdoor activities in pleasant weather. These types of (design) modification (of creating) solar devices were the characteristic of colonial buildings in the Far East developed by the architects of that period” ⁽¹⁴⁾.

The mansion was indeed a modern building, since it had been the earliest residential building in Hong Kong of steel construction and with embedded electric conduits. However, the main door “had its orientation relocated... (by) Ho Kom-tong who is proficient in feng shui” ⁽¹⁵⁾. The mansion has, on the one hand, the 19^th century Art Novae stained glass windows and classical Corinthian columns, and on the other hand, iron railings concealing the Chinese character of ‘Ho’, and also Chinese kitchen, and rear stairs dedicated to Chinese servants, demonstrating how its architecture manifests Chinese and Western design ideas.

The memorable aspects of Ho Kom-tong were not limited to his fame, wealth or romance, but also his philanthropist deeds and the honours granted, including the twice honours received from the Chinese Republic Presidents for setting up of Tung Wah Hospital and relieving disasters in South China, and the OBE received from King George V for setting up of St John Ambulance and active philanthropic works. The architectural characteristics of Kom Tong Hall mansion testify the significance of Ho and other local leaders of his generations in both Chinese and Western societies.

Society in cohesion in past and present: Understanding Hong Kong spirit from historic building of various communities

“Sharing the boat under the Lion Rock, we forsake our differences and mutually support each other... leaping in the bustling city and harbour, adoring the old streetscapes, ... here I am still nearby escorting for you.” –– Chan Wing-him / James Wong Jum-sum, Sail-on, 2013.

The awareness of cultural heritage and architectural conservation in Hong Kong has risen in recent years. By walking out of the museum, and utilising several historic buildings of Hong Kong as art venues, this project inspires several local artists in connecting modern art with traditional cultures, and by weaving the artworks into the historic architectural spaces. A whole new experience may be brought to viewers. These buildings include three traditional Hakka dwellings, and a mansion of a Westernised Chinese leader. By inspecting their architectural characteristics, visitors may experience the living patterns of early Chinese or Western communities in Hong Kong, and how they culturally interact with other communities within this borrowed city. It is hoped that viewers may integrate the historic message of the buildings and the creative sentiments of the artworks, to better comprehend the new and old values of Hong Kong, and to better treasure this hard earned spirit of Hong Kong.

(1) UNESCO. Universal Declaration of Cultural Diversity, Article 7, 2001.

(2) Hayes, James. The Hong Kong Region 1850-1911, Institutions and Leadership in Town and Countryside. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2012, p.25.

(3) Lu, Yuanding. Chinese Vernacular Architecture. Guangzhou: South China University of Technology Press, 2003, p.124.

(4) Zhou, Zhenhe. Chinese Dialects and Culture. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2006, p.6.

(5) Lo, Hsiang-lin. A Study of the Origins of the Hakka people. Hong Kong: Tsung Tsin Association Hong Kong, 1950.

(6) Xie, Chongguan. A New Study on the Origins of Hakka. Fuzhou: Fujian Education Press, 1995, p.5.

(7) Knapp, Ronald. China’s Old Dwellings. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 2000.

(8) Lau, Chun-fat. “Xianggang Kejiaren de Yuanliu 香港客家人的源流 [The origins of Hong Kong Hakka People]”. In Lau Yee-cheung (Ed.), Hong Kong Hakka. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2007, pp.49-58.

(9) Knapp, Op. cit.

(10) Ibid.

(11) Ting, Sun Pao. 非我族裔：戰前香港的外籍族羣 [Not my ethnicity: The Foreign Ethnic Groups in pre-war Hong Kong]. Hong Kong: Joint Publishing (Hong Kong) Company Limited, 2014.

(12) Ip, Sum Ming. ‘Sir G. F. Bowen and the Reform of the Hong Kong Legislative Council, 1883-1885’. Master of Arts in Chinese Historical Studies, The University of Hong Kong, 2007, p.103.

(13) Liu, Frances Tse. Ho Kom Tong, A Man for All Seasons. Hong Kong: Compradore House Ltd (HK), 2003.

(14) Tam, Si-wai, Kenneth. ‘Conservation Plans for Kom Tong Hall.’Master of Science in Conservation thesis, The University of Hong Kong, 2004, p.24.

(15) Tse, Chi-hoi. 圖說・香港殖民建築 [Images: Colonial Architecture of Hong Kong]. Hong Kong: Softrepublic, 2007, p.56.

Writer’s Biography

Edward Leung
Edward Leung is an architect with experience in conserving historic architecture, including an award winning Adaptive Reuse design and many other restoration projects in China and Hong Kong. Apart from being the former Chairman of the Heritage Conservation Committee of Hong Kong Institute of Architects (HKIA) and the Academic Director of HKU Space Cultural Heritage Management Programme, he also regularly delivers lectures and papers on local historic architectural topics.